Role Of Commercial Banks In Project Finance
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Beyond their traditional role in project finance transactions, commercial banks are developing new roles in providing advisory services; construction financing; intermediation to permanent long-term fixed-rate financing; commodity, currency, and interest rate risk management; foreign tax absorption; and working capital financing for projects throughout the world. Looked at separately, the development of these roles is a response to increasing competition both among commercial banks and between commercial banks and other institutional lenders and intermediaries to meet an explosion of worldwide project finance needs. Commercial banks differ considerably in their ability to provide such services.
Introduction
Commercial banks have always had an active role in project finance transactions. In fact, project finance is generally thought to have begun in the 1930s when a Dallas bank made a non-recourse loan to develop an oil and gas property. It "came of age" in the 1970s and '80s with the successful financing of North Sea oil and gas projects, Australia's Northwest Shelf gas project, independent non-utility power generation in the United States, and similar substantial projects.
Project finance has been employed in almost all capital-intensive industries, particularly in transportation (aircraft, rail, and shipping), in mineral and other natural resource exploration and development (including oil and gas), and, most recently, in independent power projects. Project finance is also commonly used in countries whose domestic capital markets are small relative to their project development requirements (e.g., Australia and Canada) or are relatively immature (e.g., certain developing countries).
Project finance allows project assets to be separated from the sponsor and to be financed on the basis of the cash flow from the project assets. It allows a sponsor to undertake a project with more risk than the sponsor is willing to underwrite independently.
Traditional Role
Commercial banks can provide project financing because they are able to evaluate complex project financing transactions and to assess and assume the construction and performance risks usually involved in such financings. However, largely because of the short-term nature of a commercial bank's liabilities (its deposits), commercial bank participation is usually limited in amount, although banks closely monitor and control their project finance assets much as they do their other long-term assets. Project sponsors frequently seek financing through a "request for proposal" or "RFP" process, and several commercial banks are likely to form separate syndicates or "clubs" to respond to an RFP. The division of work within a syndicate is often functional, and has become quite efficient, with individual banks designated as technical agent, documentation agent, syndication agent, and variations thereof 1.
A project's sponsor normally requests commitments from its commercial banks for both construction financing and then the permanent long-term financing of its project. A typical commitment for construction financing is for two years and permanent financing is usually from ten to fifteen years, although in rare cases commercial banks have provided permanent financing commitments of twenty years or more. Most permanent financing commitments by commercial banks include specified increases in the applicable interest rate ("step-ups" in the applicable margin or spread over the bank's cost of funds) to provide incentives for the commercial bank financing to be refinanced before its scheduled maturity.
The successful commercial bank syndicate for a project financing usually seeks to "sell down" its underwritten commitments in a further coordinated syndication to a larger bank group. This subsequent syndication may occur before financial closing (i.e., the execution and delivery of definitive financing documents) or after, depending on 1) the confidence of the original syndicate banks in the "marketability" of their transaction in the commercial bank project finance markets, and their willingness to assume the risk of adverse change in such markets; 2) the timing constraints of the project; 3) the project sponsor's preferences in this regard, or the original banks' desire to reduce their levels of commitment; or 4) all or any combination of these circumstances.
The project's construction financing, which normally bears interest at a floating rate, usually requires interest rate risk to be hedged through an interest rate swap, cap, or collar 2. Upon completion of construction and demonstration of the project's acceptable performance, most sponsors will seek to refinance the project with permanent, long-term, and fixed-rate financing. This refinancing is usually on terms that allow the project more operational flexibility, because construction risk has been eliminated from the project, and because obtaining waivers from public holders is quite difficult. This traditional model has proven very successful over a considerable period of time and in a wide variety of industries and specific applications. It has provided and will continue to provide substantial capital to qualifying projects throughout the world.
New International Opportunities
According to the World Bank, developing countries currently spend about $200 billion a year on infrastructure development 3. Although primarily financed by governments to date, this level of government spending places an enormous burden on public finances. It is probably unsustainable over the long term, especially in Asia, where infrastructure investment is expected to rise from 4% to 7% of gross domestic product by the year 2000.
The scope of this projected infrastructure investment is challenging. For example, China wants to install 8 million telephone lines a year after 1995. This is in itself an impressive goal until one notes that in 1992 China had a total of only 18 million installed lines 4.
All available evidence indicates that private infrastructure investment (as opposed to public investment) is growing rapidly throughout the world, but especially in the developing countries in Asia, Latin America, and the former Eastern bloc. According to one recent survey, private investment in infrastructure outside the United States doubled from 1993 to 1994. Over 900 projects amounting to almost $680 billion are reported as constructed or under development in seventy-two countries 5. The survey (compiled with the assistance of the World Bank's newly established Private Provision of Public Services Group) notes the limited availability of commercial bank financing for these projects. Obtaining long-term institutional debt and equity financing in sufficient amounts remains a challenge even for financially sound, well-structured projects. The survey also notes that the large construction companies increasingly dominate infrastructure development, but are funding this development through use of their own balance sheets.
Constraining Factors
Several factors have constrained the participation of commercial banks in the current project finance boom for international infrastructure projects:
- The aftermath of the international debt crisis, including losses sustained by commercial banks, numerous reschedulings or plans for this debt, and related capital and administrative burdens.
- The disintermediation of the largest and most creditworthy commercial bank customers (who can access the capital markets directly and are therefore less dependent on commercial bank financing).
- Increased competition for deposits from money market mutual funds (money invested in money market mutual funds now exceeds commercial bank deposits) and investment banks (cash management accounts).
- Increased competition from investment banks in arranging and syndicating commercial loans 6.
- The imposition of minimum risk-based capital requirements (which require that the activities of commercial banks be internally measured against return on risk-adjusted capital and which have driven commercial banks to maximize fee income opportunities).
- The general decline in commercial bank credit quality.
While a complete analysis of the commercial banks' responses to these factors is beyond the scope of this article, the responses of commercial banks in the area of project finance in this environment, and the new roles now played by commercial banks, are both illustrative and instructive.
New Roles
As commercial banks look for fee income through "unbundling" their financial services, many have established project finance advisory groups, some with considerable success. These groups offer advisory services that include the commercial bank's experience in feasibility assessment and financial analysis, trade credit, and international finance (especially the bank's experience with the multi- and bilateral institutions that are the critical participants in most international infrastructure projects), and its overall project development and management skills (including the negotiation and documentation of increasingly large and complex transactions). Some commercial banks have used their project finance experience to market corporate trust services in international capital market financings for projects. They can sell the value to sponsors and investors of having an experienced trustee or fiscal agent involved in complex project financing transactions.
Most of the larger commercial banks have accelerated the development of their syndication, private placement, and other similar debt distribution groups. This development has been limited in the U.S. to date by bank laws and regulations (notably, the Glass-Steagall Act). While the U.S. is in the early stages of what may be significant reform in this regard, it is noteworthy that J.P. Morgan recently was placed sixth in total equity and debt underwriting (replacing Salomon Brothers) 7. Several other commercial banks are close behind J.P. Morgan in such rankings.
Commercial banks occupied seven of the top fifteen places in overall private placement activity in 1994 8 and five of the top six places in traditional private placements in the first half of 1995 9. IDD describes this performance as a "stunning development" and "almost complete dominance."
In a related development, commercial banks have teamed up with their frequent competitors, insurance companies, to provide financing for projects. An insurance company may provide a separate commitment for permanent financing (to "take out" the commercial bank's construction financing) that the commercial bank can rely on in extending its construction financing commitment. More often, an insurance company and the commercial bank together provide commitments for both construction and permanent financing. The insurance company holds the longer maturities of the permanent financing (thus allowing the commercial bank to hold earlier maturities to minimize its asset/liability mismatch). A prime asset in any role is the commercial banks' wealth of trade credit and international finance experience with the multi- and bilateral agencies, including the World Bank and its agencies (the International Finance Corporation and Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency), the U.S. Export-Import Bank, the Overseas Political Insurance Corporation, and other regional development banks and export credit agencies. These entities are critical participants in providing and arranging financing and political risk insurance cover for international infrastructure projects.
The technical requirements of the international agencies and the terms of their financing and risk cover vary in important respects, so it is an advantage to have an advisor who is familiar with such requirements and terms to facilitate the analysis of their relative values. Several of these entities (e.g., U.S. ExIm and OPIC) have recently established or expanded their own project finance lending groups, however, and some have even established their own project advisory groups (e.g., the IFC). Commercial banks have been major participants in the creation and development of interest rate, currency exchange, and commodity risk management markets. In these generally mature and efficient markets, many commercial banks offer risk management services as separate financial products. Interest rate risk is present during the construction period of almost every project. Occasionally, it is present when the permanent financing or some portion of it bears interest at a floating rate. Currency exchange risks arise frequently in international projects, notably in infrastructure projects where the currency in which cash flow is generated is different from (and at some point must be converted into) the currency in which the project financing (or some portion of it) is denominated. Commodity risk also arises frequently in natural resource projects (even when the financing currency and cash flow currency are the same). The creativity that commercial banks have developed in this area can be the difference between a successful or a failed project. An example: A commercial bank will swap volumes of crude oil or gas over time into dollars (a series of forward sales), so that a development project can be financed on the basis of the bank's swap. The bank thus essentially takes the commodity risk from the project and "substitutes" its own credit under the swap.
Several commercial banks or their affiliates have also provided development or mezzanine financing for projects. Some have even made equity investments in projects. Others have made equity commitments to, or equity investments in, pooled investment vehicles specifically targeted for project and other infrastructure investments.
When a commercial bank has a local activity in a project's jurisdiction, it may provide tax absorption. That is, the bank will not require a full gross-up for applicable withholding or similar deductions from interest payments under a project financing but will agree to absorb some portion of this tax burden. The bank can do this usually because its local activity does not generate taxable income, so tax losses are available from such activity to shelter some portion of this tax burden. If a commercial bank provides this service, it will agree to do so only for a limited period (one or two years), and will probably limit the maximum amount of tax burden absorbed.
Commercial banks that have local banking presence can also provide working capital financing for a project. Although such financings are usually small when compared with the size of the permanent financing, almost all projects require working capital financing.
Competition From Capital Markets
Many of us have suggested that the international capital markets, especially the United States Rule 144A market, might provide an alternative source of project financing to commercial banks 10. Economic events continue to demonstrate the volatility of the capital markets as a source of project finance. From a project sponsor's viewpoint, the Mexican peso devaluation, in particular, is evidence of the unreliability of the capital markets as an alternative to project financing by commercial banks. Such events adversely affect projects in emerging markets, and have even resulted in the abandonment of capital market financings for such projects at the eleventh hour 11.
In addition, the capital markets are not particularly receptive to project financing during construction of a project for three principal reasons:
- The investors cannot price the construction risk that they would assume.
- The project will incur negative arbitrage on funds raised in anticipation of construction costs not yet incurred. This can represent a substantial financial penalty, depending on the construction timetable, scheduled project draws, and the applicable spread between interest paid to investors and interest earned on funds invested.
- As a technical matter, it is difficult to write documentation (particularly the construction draw provisions) that provides appropriate investor protection during the construction period at the same time that it provides the project with necessary flexibility to deal with unexpected events.
Nevertheless, for completed projects that have demonstrated satisfactory performance, the international capital markets are an attractive source of permanent long-term fixed-rate financing. While such a capital markets financing would refinance the commercial bank financing, it may or may not affect some of the other financial services that commercial banks provide for the project, such as commodity or currency exchange hedges.
Moreover, it may be a commercial bank that undertakes the capital markets financing for the project's sponsor. There are several reasons for this to be the case:
- The commercial bank, if it has previously provided financial services to the project, is already familiar with the project and risks to be identified and controlled for potential investors.
- The commercial bank can advise the project's sponsor as to the most attractive financing plan for the project, given investor risk profiles, particular capital market volatility, and the like.
- The commercial bank can negotiate documentation for such financing that balances the lender's need for investor protections and the sponsor's need for project flexibility.
Conclusion
The "unbundling" of financial services by commercial banks in the area of project finance has provided and will continue to provide new opportunities for commercial banks (and new competition) in the explosion of worldwide project finance needs. It has also allowed banks to differentiate themselves in the provision of such services.
Footnotes
1 Some cynical observers suggest that the division of project finance responsibilities has less to do with efficient teamwork than with agency "league tables" kept on commercial banks.
2 A drawback to hedging through swaps and collars is that payments in this arrangement may be due from the project. If the swap or collar providers thus may become creditors of the project, project collateral will have to be shared with them.
3 World Bank's "World Development Report 1994," p. 89.
4 World Bank's "World Development Report," p. 92.
5 Public Works Financing's "1994 International Major Projects Survey," October 1994.
6 See "CS First Boston to Tread on Banks' Loan Turf," Wall Street Journal, June 16, 1994, p. C1; "Merrill Lynch, Offering Top Dollar, Woos 5 Chemical Loan Syndicators," American Banker, June 20, 1994.
7 "Commercial Banks Emerging as Underwriting Force," Wall Street Journal, April 3, 1995, p. C1.
8 IDD's Private Placement Letter, February 27, 1995 at 3.
9 IDD's Private Placement Letter, August 28, 1995 at 4.
10 See "Financing Infrastructure Projects in the International Capital Markets: The Tribasa Toll Road Trust," by Peter V. Darrow, Nicole V.F. Bergman Fong, and J. Paul Forrester, The Financier, Vol. 1, No. 3, August 1994, pp. 9-XX.
11 CS First Boston and its co-managers, J.P. Morgan and Kidder Peabody, pulled a $300 million offering for the Guadalajara-Tepic toll road before closing but after pricing on December 16, 1994.
The content of this article is intended to provide a general guide to the subject matter. Specialist advice should be sought about your specific circumstances.
