Litigation Dispute Resolution Comparative Guide

1 Legal framework

1.1 What system of jurisprudence applies in your jurisdiction? What implications does this have for litigation?

Iraq follows a mixed system of civil law and religious law. The civil legal system is influenced by the French and Egyptian Civil Codes, while personal status laws are governed by Islamic jurisprudence. The Constitution of 2005 also plays a significant role in shaping the legal framework. This mixture requires litigants to understand both secular and religious aspects when handling cases. For instance, civil disputes are governed by the Civil Code of 1951, whereas family law cases follow religious courts based on personal status laws.

1.2 What rules govern litigation in your jurisdiction?

Litigation in Iraq is primarily governed by the Civil Procedure Law (83/1969), which outlines the rules for civil and commercial disputes. For criminal cases, the Penal Code (111/1969) and the Criminal Procedure Law (23/1971) apply. Additionally, the Evidence Law (107/1979) governs how evidence is presented in court.

Pursuant to Article 14 of the Civil Code (40/1951), the Iraqi courts have jurisdiction over cases where one of the parties is an Iraqi national, even if the obligations were entered into outside Iraq. With respect to foreigners, the Iraqi courts exercise jurisdiction if:

• the foreign party is domiciled in Iraq; or
• the case pertains to:
• • immovable or movable property within Iraq;
  • a contract concluded or performed within Iraq; or
  • an event that occurred within Iraq.

Jurisdiction in personal status matters: Personal status matters concerning Iraqi nationals are governed by Article 2 of the Personal Status Law (188/1959). However, other religious sects are subject to their own specific laws, such as the Law on the Regulation of Courts for Christian and Mosaic Religious Sects (32/1947). As for foreign Muslims, the court applies the personal law of their country of origin. Muslims from countries where Islamic Sharia law is applicable (eg, Egyptians and Syrians) are subject to the jurisdiction of the Personal Status Court. Conversely, foreigners from countries governed by civil law (eg, French nationals) have their cases heard by the Court of First Instance.

1.3 Do any special regimes apply to specific claims?

Yes, specific regimes apply to different types of claims. For example:

• the Personal Status Law (188/1959) applies to family matters such as divorce and inheritance;
• commercial disputes are regulated by the Commercial Law (30/1984); and
• labour disputes fall under the Labour Law (37/2015).

In addition, special regimes apply to specific claims in Iraq and these regimes are linked to certain sectors within the federal government. The Iraqi Constitution outlines the structure of the executive, legislative and judicial authorities and independent commissions, each of which has its own legal system to address certain types of claims.

Human rights and election-related claims: These claims fall under the supervision of:

• the Independent High Commission for Human Rights; and
• the Independent High Electoral Commission.

Human rights violations and electoral complaints are handled according to specific laws that define the jurisdiction and powers of these commissions.

Claims related to transparency and anti-corruption: The Integrity Commission is responsible for investigating cases of corruption and abuse of power in government institutions. It operates under specific legislation governing its work and is subject to oversight by the Iraqi Parliament to ensure the independence of its decisions.

Financial claims: Financial claims are addressed by the Financial Matters Court pursuant to Central Bank of Iraq Law. This court is financially and administratively independent and is tasked with:

• regulating monetary policies; and
• ensuring transparency in public financial administration.

Claims under international agreements: Provisions of international agreements to which Iraq is a party are binding when claims are related to such agreements. These include matters such as:

• the extradition of criminals;
• trade agreements; and
• other agreements concerning judicial cooperation between countries.

These special regimes help to organise specific jurisdictions for each body or institution to ensure justice and provide appropriate legal solutions in Iraq.

1.4 Which bilateral and multilateral instruments have relevance to litigation in your jurisdiction?

Iraq is bound by various bilateral and multilateral agreements that significantly influence litigation within its jurisdiction. These instruments pertain to areas such as judicial cooperation, criminal law, human rights and international trade.

• Bilateral agreements: Iraq has signed numerous bilateral treaties with neighbouring and regional countries, focusing on areas such as extradition, mutual legal assistance and judicial cooperation. These agreements facilitate the handling of cross-border legal matters, including the enforcement of foreign judgments. Notably, Iraq has agreements with countries such as Jordan, Turkey and Iran, promoting cooperation in civil and criminal litigation.
• Multilateral treaties: Iraq is also a party to several key multilateral conventions, including:
• • the United Nations Convention against Corruption, which encourages international cooperation in anti-corruption efforts, investigations and legal proceedings;
  • the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, which promotes collaboration in combating cross-border crimes such as human trafficking and drug smuggling; and
  • the New York Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards, which ensures the enforcement of international arbitration awards in Iraq, supporting the use of arbitration in resolving commercial disputes.
• Riyadh Arab Agreement for Judicial Cooperation: Iraq is a signatory to the Riyadh Agreement, which facilitates extensive judicial cooperation among Arab countries. This agreement covers:
• • mutual recognition and enforcement of judgments;
  • extradition; and
  • legal assistance in civil, commercial and criminal matters.
• Human rights conventions: Iraq is a signatory to various international human rights conventions – such as the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the Convention Against Torture – which can be invoked in litigation involving civil liberties and human rights violations.

These agreements reinforce Iraq's commitment to international legal norms, ensuring cooperation in litigation matters across borders and supporting the enforcement of international standards in both civil and criminal cases.

2 Judicial structure

2.1 What courts exist in your jurisdiction and how are they structured?

The Iraqi judicial system is distinguished by its various levels and specialised courts, comprising four main branches:

• ordinary courts;
• constitutional courts;
• administrative courts; and
• military courts.

The organisational structure and key specialised courts within each branch are summarised below.

Ordinary courts:

• Supreme Judicial Council: This is the highest administrative body for the ordinary judiciary in Iraq, headquartered in Baghdad. It consists of:
• • the president of the Supreme Judicial Council (who also serves as the chief justice of the Court of Cassation);
  • vice presidents of the Court of Cassation;
  • the chief prosecutor;
  • the president of the Judicial Supervision Commission; and
  • the presidents of the Courts of Appeal in each governorate.
• Court of Cassation: The highest appellate body in Iraq, located in Baghdad. It reviews decisions issued by criminal, civil and family courts. It consists of several chambers, including:
• • the General Chamber;
  • the Expanded Criminal Chamber; and
  • the Expanded Civil Chamber.
• Courts of appeal: There is a court of appeal in each Iraqi governorate, except for Baghdad, which has two (Karkh and Rusafa). The courts of appeal review civil and criminal cases and are considered the highest judicial and administrative authority in each governorate.
• Other courts: Other courts under the Supreme Judicial Council include the following:
• • Courts of first instance: Handle civil cases.
  • Personal status courts: Deals with family matters such as marriage, divorce and custody.
  • Investigative courts: Conduct investigations into crimes.
  • Criminal and misdemeanour courts: Hear criminal cases based on the severity of the crime and the penalty.
  • Juvenile courts: Handle cases involving minors under the age of 18.
  • Labour courts: Specialise in labour disputes between workers and employers.
• Commercial courts: Established to resolve disputes involving at least one foreign party, primarily focusing on international commercial matters. The first commercial court in Baghdad began functioning in 2010, with plans for similar courts in Basra, Najaf and Mosul. These courts provide a specialised forum for the adjudication of complex commercial disputes, focusing on:
• • foreign investor concerns;
  • cross-border litigation;
  • IP issues; and
  • electronic evidence.
• The creation of the commercial courts is part of broader legal reforms aimed at:
• • enhancing foreign investor confidence; and
  • streamlining commercial dispute resolution.

Constitutional judiciary: The Federal Supreme Court is the highest judicial authority for constitutional matters in Iraq. Located in Baghdad, it consists of a chief justice and eight members. This court is responsible for interpreting constitutional provisions and resolving disputes between the central government and regional or provincial governments.

Administrative judiciary: The Council of State is responsible for administrative judiciary functions, independent of the Supreme Judicial Council or any other authority. The council includes:

• administrative courts;
• employee courts; and
• the Administrative Supreme Court.

It handles disputes related to administrative decisions issued by governmental bodies.

Military judiciary:

• Military courts: These courts fall under the Ministry of Defence and are composed of military officers with legal qualifications. Military courts adjudicate crimes committed by military personnel in the course of their duties.
• Internal security forces courts (police): These courts fall under the Ministry of Interior and consist of police officers with legal qualifications. They hear cases involving police officers related to their official duties.

2.2 What specialist courts or tribunals exist in your jurisdiction?

Specialised courts and judicial bodies: In addition to the main judicial bodies listed in question 2.1, Iraq's judicial system includes several specialised courts in various fields:

• Personal status courts: Deal with matters of family law, such as marriage, divorce, child custody and alimony.
• Juvenile courts: Handle cases involving defendants under the age of 18.
• Labour courts: Adjudicate labour disputes between workers and employers.
• Commercial courts: Established to resolve disputes involving at least one foreign party, primarily focusing on international commercial matters. The first commercial court in Baghdad began functioning in 2010, with plans for similar courts in Basra, Najaf and Mosul. These courts provide a specialised forum for the adjudication of complex commercial disputes, focusing on:
• • foreign investor concerns;
  • cross-border litigation;
  • IP issues; and
  • electronic evidence.
• The creation of the commercial courts is part of broader legal reforms aimed at:
• • enhancing foreign investor confidence; and
  • streamlining commercial dispute resolution.

3 Pre-litigation

3.1 What formalities apply before litigation can be commenced in your jurisdiction?

Before litigation can be commenced in Iraq, several formalities must be followed according to the Civil Procedure Law (83/1969). Key formalities include the following:

• Pre-litigation notice: In most civil and commercial cases, the law may require the plaintiff to serve formal notice on the defendant before initiating legal action. Failure to meet this requirement will result in the dismissal of the lawsuit by the court according to the Civil Code.
• Preparation of the statement of claim: The claimant must file a written petition that outlines:
• • the facts of the dispute;
  • the legal grounds; and
  • the relief sought.
• This claim must be submitted to the appropriate court.
• Jurisdiction check: The court in which the claim is filed must have jurisdiction over the subject matter and the defendant, determined by factors such as:
• • the location of the parties;
  • where the contract was executed; or
  • where the disputed matter occurred.
• Payment of court fees: The court fees must be paid at the time of submitting the claim. The fees are based on:
• • the value of the claim; and
  • the type of case being presented.
• Summons and notification: The court must issue a formal notice or summons to the defendant, informing it of the lawsuit and granting it an opportunity to respond. Proper notification is crucial; failure to notify the defendant may delay the proceedings.

Arbitration: Where an arbitration agreement exists between the parties and one of the parties raises this clause before the court, the court must suspend the litigation. The case will be referred to arbitration and the lawsuit will be suspended for up to six months pending issuance of the arbitration award.

3.2 Do any pre-action protocols or similar rules apply prior to the commencement of litigation? What are the consequences of non-compliance?

Under the Civil Procedure Law, there are no specific 'pre-action protocols' as seen in some other jurisdictions, such as the United Kingdom. However, certain formal steps must be followed before initiating litigation, including issuing legal notices in some cases to resolve disputes amicably. Non-compliance with these requirements may result in procedural delays or dismissal of the case. Additionally, if an arbitration clause exists between the parties and is invoked, the court will refer the case to arbitration and suspend the litigation for six months until the arbitration award is rendered.

3.3 What other factors should a party consider before commencing litigation in your jurisdiction?

Before commencing litigation in Iraq, a party should consider several key factors. These include ensuring that the claim is not barred by the statute of limitations, as time limits vary for different types of cases. Jurisdiction is another important factor, as the Iraqi courts follow strict rules about where a lawsuit can be filed, depending on:

• the defendant's domicile; or
• the subject matter of the dispute.

Additionally, if an arbitration clause exists between the parties, the court will defer the case to arbitration and suspend the litigation for six months pending issuance of the arbitration award.

4 Commencing litigation

4.1 What rules on limitations periods apply in your jurisdiction?

General statute of limitations for civil claims: According to Article 429 of the Civil Code, the general statute of limitations for all civil claims is 15 years unless otherwise specified by law.

Commercial claims: For claims related to the holder of a commercial bill against endorsers or the drawer, the statute of limitations is one year, pursuant to Article 132 of the Commercial Law (30/1984). For claims between endorsers or against the drawer, the limitation period is six months under the same law.

Claims arising from contracts and compensation: Claims for damages (whether caused by trespass, negligence or default) are subject to a three-year statute of limitations from the date on which the injured party became aware of the damage or its cause, according to Article 170 of the Civil Code.

Labour claims: Article 51 stipulates that:

• claims for rights arising from employment relationships cannot be heard after three years from the due date; and
• claims for compensation arising from a criminal act cannot be heard after five years from the date of occurrence.

Claims arising from administrative contracts and real estate: The statute of limitations for these claims varies depending on the nature of the contract. For example, real estate-related claims can be subject to a 15-year limitation unless special laws provide otherwise.

Criminal claims: The limitation periods in criminal law vary according to the type of crime:

• Felonies: 15 years.
• Misdemeanours: Five years.
• Violations: Three years.

The Penal Code does not generally recognise statutes of limitations, except for crimes committed by juveniles, as provided in Article 70(2) of the Juvenile Care Law.

Consequences of expiry of the limitation period: If the statute of limitations expires without the filing of a lawsuit:

• the right to claim is extinguished by law; and
• the claimant cannot sue the other party.

However, the statute of limitations can be delayed or restarted in certain cases, such as:

• fraud;
• coercion; or
• other legal excuses that prevent the filing of a lawsuit.

4.2 What rules on jurisdiction and how this is determined apply in your jurisdiction?

In Iraq, jurisdiction is determined according to the rules set out in the Civil Procedure Law (83/1969). Jurisdiction involves identifying the appropriate court to hear a dispute based on specific criteria, such as:

• the location of the parties;
• where the action or incident occurred;
• the type of case; and
• other factors.

Local jurisdiction:

• Court of the defendant's domicile: The defendant's habitual residence is the primary basis for determining local jurisdiction. The lawsuit is filed in the court where the defendant resides.
• Court of the place of execution of an obligation: In contract-related cases, the lawsuit can be filed in the court where the obligation is to be executed.
• Court of the place where harm occurred: In tort cases, local jurisdiction is determined based on where the wrongful act occurred.
• Court of real property location: Lawsuits concerning ownership or other real rights over immovable property are filed in the court of the jurisdiction where the property is located.

Subject-matter jurisdiction:

• Primary and appellate courts: Subject-matter jurisdiction is determined based on:
• • the type of case; and
  • the monetary claim involved.
• Cases with lower monetary claims are heard by the primary courts, while higher-value cases or appeals are heard by the appellate courts.
• Commercial courts: These courts are responsible for handling commercial disputes between merchants, companies or commercial institutions.
• Personal status courts: These courts handle personal status cases such as marriage, divorce, custody and alimony.
• Labour courts: Labour courts specialise in labour disputes between employees and employers.

Functional jurisdiction:

• Federal Court of Cassation: The Federal Court of Cassation hears appeals filed against decisions of the appellate courts in civil and criminal cases.
• Federal Supreme Court: The Federal Supreme Court is the highest court in Iraq, responsible for resolving constitutional disputes. It was established under Law 30/2005 pursuant to Article 93 of the Constitution. Its decisions are final and binding on all authorities. It is entirely independent from the ordinary judiciary and has no connection to it. The court is based in Baghdad and consists of a president and eight members.

Exceptional rules of jurisdiction:

• Agreement on jurisdiction: The parties may agree in advance to designate a specific court to have jurisdiction over a dispute, provided that the court is already competent to hear the case.
• Multiple defendants: In cases involving multiple defendants residing in different locations, the plaintiff may file the lawsuit in the court at the place where any one of the defendants is located.

Consequences of non-compliance with jurisdiction rules: If a lawsuit is filed in an incompetent court (whether geographically, by subject matter or functionally), the case may be dismissed or transferred to the competent court.

4.3 Are class actions permitted in your jurisdiction?

Class actions, as recognised in legal systems such as the US or European models, are not explicitly acknowledged in Iraqi legislation. Neither the Civil Procedure Law (83/1969) nor other laws provide a legal framework for class actions as an independent legal process. This means that class actions have not been formally adopted in the Iraqi legal system.

Civil Procedure Law (83/1969): This law does not include a specific provision addressing class actions or representative procedures allowing a group of people to file a class action through one or more representatives. Instead, it deals with cases on an individual basis or in contexts that require a direct legal interest. Article 69 states that "every person with an interest" has the right to file a lawsuit, but it does not address class actions. It allows parties with shared interests in a specific case to bring joint lawsuits, but this does not encompass the class action concept recognised in other legal systems.

Lack of formal recognition of class actions: There is no legislative framework allowing for the consolidation of claims into a single class action lawsuit that could represent all those affected. This means that a group of people harmed by the same act cannot collectively file a single lawsuit as permitted by laws in the United States or some European countries.

Possible exceptions:

• Multiple individual lawsuits: It is possible for multiple individuals to file similar lawsuits individually, allowing one lawyer or a legal team to represent them all, provided that each person has a direct interest in the case.
• Administrative proceedings: Certain administrative or constitutional lawsuits filed by individuals or groups against government entities may involve representation of a specific group (eg, rights or collective grievances cases), but they are not considered official class actions.

Labour class actions: Under the Labour Law, collective labour disputes – such as those between groups of workers and employers – are handled through specific mechanisms. While there is no direct provision for class actions, labour disputes often involve multiple claimants or workers acting collectively. The law allows for collective representation in resolving labour disputes, including arbitration or labour court proceedings. In this context, groups of workers can seek collective redress through established legal processes. However, these are still treated as individual claims represented collectively, rather than class actions in the traditional sense.

4.4 What are the formal requirements for commencing litigation?

To initiate a lawsuit in Iraq, specific formal requirements must be adhered to as per the Civil Procedure Law (83/1969). These formalities include the submission of a written statement of claim to the competent court. The petition must contain specific information according to Article 46, including:

• the name of the court;
• the names and addresses of the plaintiff and defendant;
• the subject of the dispute and requests;
• a summary of the facts and reasons; and
• supporting evidence and documents.

Petition signature: According to Article 47, the petition must be signed by the plaintiff or its legal representative (attorney). If the plaintiff is unable to sign, a legally authorised individual may sign on its behalf, provided that there is a power of attorney.

Submission of copies: Per Article 48, the plaintiff must submit sufficient copies of the petition and supporting documents for the court and each party involved in the dispute, as well as an extra copy for the case file.

Court fees: Court fees must be paid upon filing the petition, which vary depending on the case type and value. Non-payment of fees can result in rejection of the petition.

Attachment of evidence: All relevant documents and evidence supporting the claim – including contracts, official documents and testimonies – must be attached, as per Article 46.

Jurisdiction: According to Articles 39–41, the plaintiff must ensure that the case is filed before the court with appropriate territorial and subject-matter jurisdiction. Filing in an incorrect court can lead to the lawsuit being dismissed or transferred.

Notification of defendant: Once the lawsuit is accepted and registered, the court must notify the defendant through formal service of process, as per Articles 51–56:

• attaching the lawsuit petition and evidence; and
• setting a date for the first hearing.

4.5 What are the procedural and substantive requirements for commencing litigation?

To initiate a legal claim in Iraq, several substantive requirements must be met to ensure its admissibility:

• Legal interest: As per Article 6 of the Civil Procedure Law, the plaintiff must have a legitimate, direct and real interest in the case. Claims without a legal interest or those that are indirect or illegitimate are not accepted by the court.
• Legal right or status: Under the general principles of the Civil Code (40/1951), the plaintiff must assert a protected legal right or status under Iraqi law.
• Statutory limitation (prescription): According to Articles 429-438 of the Civil Code, the claim must be filed within the statutory limitation period applicable to the right being asserted. Failure to file within this time could result in the dismissal of the claim due to prescription.
• Legal cause: The plaintiff must present a clear legal cause for the claim, establishing a legal relationship between the parties that justifies the lawsuit.
• Conformity with legal provisions: The facts and legal grounds must align with the relevant Iraqi laws. If the facts do not correspond to the legal framework, the claim may be rejected.

4.6 Are interim remedies available in your jurisdiction? If so, how are they obtained?

Temporary remedies are available in the Iraqi legal system to protect parties' rights pending final resolution of a case. These remedies – known as 'temporary orders' or 'precautionary measures' – include:

• attachment orders;
• travel bans; and
• temporary judicial orders such as injunctions to maintain the status quo or suspend the execution of certain decisions.

Attachment order: Under Articles 231-250 of the Civil Procedure Law (83/1969), attachment orders (precautionary seizure) are crucial temporary remedies used to prevent a debtor from disposing of movable or immovable property to safeguard a creditor's rights. The creditor must submit a request to the court outlining the reasons and attaching supporting evidence that demonstrates a likely threat to its interests if the attachment order is not issued. The court will decide after assessing the requirements and merits of the request.

Travel ban: According to Article 142 of the Civil Procedure Law, a travel ban is another temporary measure used to prevent a defendant from leaving the country until the case is resolved. The plaintiff must submit a request to the court, accompanied by documentation that shows the defendant may flee or evade legal obligations. The court will issue the travel ban if convinced by the presented evidence.

Other temporary orders: Under Articles 151-153 of the Civil Procedure Law, the court can issue various other temporary orders, such as:

• suspending the enforcement of administrative or judicial decisions; or
• maintaining the status quo.

These orders require a formal request from the party, providing the reasons for urgency, supported by evidence. The court's decision is based on its assessment of the legal standing and potential harm.

Protective orders: Under Article 151 of the Civil Procedure Law, protective orders (known as 'ex parte orders') are issued without notifying the opposing party. They temporarily protect a party's rights, such as securing documents or prohibiting the transfer of certain assets. The applicant must file a petition detailing the rights and reasons for requesting such an order.

Submission of requests: All applications for temporary relief must be submitted in writing to the competent court, including the legal basis and facts justifying the urgent action. Legal interest and the urgency of preserving rights or preventing harm must be demonstrated, along with the necessary supporting documents.

4.7 Under what circumstances must security for costs be provided?

Under the Civil Procedure Law, security for costs must be provided in various circumstances, particularly when a party seeks a provisional attachment or precautionary seizure. According to Article 234 and subsequent provisions, the requesting party must either:

• deposit 10% of the claimed amount as security; or
• provide a certified guarantee from a public notary.

This security is meant to cover potential damages to the opposing party if the attachment proves unjustified. However, this requirement can be waived if the request is based on a verified official document or judicial ruling.

Claims brought by companies or entities in liquidation: The court may require security for costs from companies in liquidation or bankruptcy to ensure coverage of potential litigation expenses.

Temporary or urgent applications: The plaintiff may be required to provide security for costs in temporary or urgent requests, such as an attachment order, if the request is likely to cause significant financial harm to the other party.

To file for an attachment before the court in Iraq, the following procedures must be followed based on the Civil Procedure Law:

• Submit an application: The creditor must submit a written request to the competent court. The application should include:
• • the names of the creditor (applicant) and the debtor;
  • their addresses;
  • the basis for the claim;
  • the amount owed; and
  • the date of the application.
• Security for costs: The applicant must either provide a certified guarantee from a notary or deposit 10% of the claimed amount with the court as security to cover potential damages to the debtor if the attachment is later deemed unjustified.
• Exemption from security: The applicant may be exempt from this requirement if the request is based on an official certified document or a judicial ruling, regardless of whether it is final.
• Decision by the court: The court must decide on the attachment request within 24 hours, either accepting or rejecting it based on the evidence provided.
• Notification: If the attachment is granted, the debtor and any third parties holding the attached property will be notified. The creditor must file a formal lawsuit to validate the attachment within eight days of the debtor's notification. Failure to do so may lead to cancellation of the attachment.
• Execution: The court oversees the attachment process, including:
• • marking real estate or seizing movable property; and
  • notifying any third party involved to refrain from transferring the attached property without a court order.

These steps ensure that attachments are conducted lawfully while protecting the rights of both parties.

5 Disclosure

5.1 What rules apply to disclosure in your jurisdiction? Do any exceptions apply to certain types of documents?

Pursuant to Article 9 of the Evidence Law (107/1979), the court may order any party to produce evidence in its possession and refusal to comply may result in adverse inference against the party withholding the evidence. Each party has the right to request the opposing party to disclose any document deemed relevant to the case. This request is submitted to the court overseeing the matter.

Disclosure of documents: Article 65 mandates the disclosure of all documents relevant to the dispute, including:

• material evidence;
• contracts; and
• official papers.

Disclosure procedures: The party must submit the requested documents to the court within a specific timeframe. If the party refuses or fails to provide the documents without justification, the court may proceed with the case based on the available evidence.

Exceptions: Certain exceptions apply to document disclosure in Iraqi law:

• Professionally privileged or legally protected documents: Documents protected by professional confidentiality, such as communications between attorneys and clients, or those covered by legal privilege, cannot be disclosed. These are protected under laws safeguarding defence rights and privacy.
• State secrets: Documents classified as state secrets under the Law on the Protection of State Secrets (64/1973), which relate to national security or public safety, cannot be disclosed without proper authorisation.
• Personal and sensitive documents: A party may refuse disclosure of purely personal or irrelevant documents unless the court determines their necessity for uncovering the truth.
• Unavailable or lost documents: If the requested documents are lost or unavailable for reasons beyond control, such as damage or destruction, the party may submit an official declaration. The court must verify the legitimacy of such claims.

5.2 What rules on third-party disclosure apply in your jurisdiction?

In Iraq, the principles governing third-party disclosure are set out under the Civil Procedure Law (83/1969). This framework empowers litigants to request the court to direct a third party – such as an individual, corporation or governmental entity – to submit relevant documents or evidence that may significantly impact the resolution of the case. Both parties in a dispute can invoke this right if they believe that the third party holds material evidence pertinent to the issues at hand.

To initiate third-party disclosure, the requesting party must file a formal motion with the court, clearly establishing the relevance and necessity of the sought documents to the litigation. The court, upon assessing the merits of the request, may issue an order mandating the third party to produce the documents within a specified timeframe. Non-compliance with such an order may lead to legal consequences, including fines or sanctions against the third party.

However, not all documents are subject to compulsory disclosure. The law provides exceptions for materials covered by confidentiality or privilege, such as attorney-client communications or documents containing state secrets. Unless an exceptional legal justification is established, these categories remain protected. Moreover, if a third party unjustifiably refuses to disclose the required materials, the court may draw adverse inferences, potentially affecting the outcome of the case.

This legal structure ensures a balance between the need for evidence and the protection of privileged or confidential information, safeguarding fair judicial proceedings.

5.3 What rules on privilege apply in your jurisdiction? Does attorney-client privilege extend to in-house counsel?

In Iraq, attorney-client privilege is protected under the Evidence Law and the Iraqi Bar Association Law (173/1965). This privilege:

• covers confidential communications between lawyers and their clients, prohibiting disclosure without consent; and
• applies to both external lawyers and in-house counsel.

Additionally, the Medical Law protects the confidentiality between doctors and patients, prohibiting the disclosure of medical information without patient consent, similar to attorney-client privilege. This confidentiality is upheld under the Penal Code and relevant health regulations to safeguard patient privacy.

Furthermore, certain categories of information – such as state secrets and commercial secrets – are protected under instruments including:

• the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (Article 39); and
• the Criminal Procedure Law (23/1971) during investigations.

5.4 How have technological advances affected the disclosure process in your jurisdiction?

Technological advances have significantly streamlined the disclosure process in Iraq's judiciary, particularly through digital transformation. Courts now adopt electronic systems for the submission and exchange of documents, expediting procedures and reducing reliance on paper-based processes.

Security and data protection are crucial in this digital shift. Advanced encryption methods and secure systems are used to safeguard sensitive information during the disclosure process. However, with the increasing reliance on technology, privacy concerns have also emerged, requiring proper legal frameworks to regulate the handling of personal data.

Today, digital evidence – such as emails, social media records and data from electronic devices – plays a more prominent role in disclosure. This broadens the range of materials that can be used as evidence in legal proceedings.

Finally, technology has improved access to information. Parties can now access case files and monitor case progress online, enhancing transparency and efficiency in the judicial process.

5.5 What specific considerations should be borne in mind during the disclosure process, for both plaintiff and defendant?

In the Iraqi judicial system, both plaintiffs and defendants must observe key considerations during the disclosure process to ensure compliance with legal standards and preserve the integrity of the proceedings:

• Adherence to laws and regulations: Both parties must comply with the Civil Procedure Law (83/1969), which governs the submission of evidence and documents. Failure to meet these legal requirements can result in sanctions or delays in the litigation process.
• Accuracy and completeness of information: Under Article 36 of the Evidence Law (107/1979), parties must submit all relevant evidence truthfully and in full. Providing incomplete or false information may lead to legal consequences, including rejection of the evidence.
• Protection of sensitive information: Parties must ensure that confidential or sensitive information, such as trade secrets or personal data, is protected. Disclosure must be managed carefully to prevent unauthorised access to such information.
• Timely submission of documents: Articles 16–18 of the Civil Procedure Law outline the timelines for submitting evidence. Both parties must submit their documents within the court-mandated deadlines, as failure to do so may negatively affect their case.
• Handling requests for additional evidence: Courts can request further clarification or additional documents based on Article 16 of the Evidence Law. Parties should be prepared to provide any supplemental information requested by the court.
• Transparency and integrity: Parties are expected to act with transparency and integrity throughout the disclosure process, avoiding any attempts to conceal or manipulate information. This ensures a fair and just resolution of the dispute.

6 Evidence

6.1 What types of evidence are permissible in your jurisdiction?

In Iraq, the types of evidence permissible in legal proceedings are governed by the Evidence Law (107/1979) and the Civil Procedure Law, along with general legal principles. The primary categories of evidence allowed are as follows:

• Written evidence (documentary evidence): Written evidence includes:
• • contracts;
  • reports;
  • letters; and
  • other documents submitted to verify claims.
• These are highly valued because they provide formal documentation of facts or agreements.
• Testimonies: Under Article 45 of the Evidence Law, witness testimony is a key form of evidence. Witnesses must:
• • be competent;
  • provide their testimony under oath; and
  • have direct knowledge of the facts in dispute.
• Material evidence: Article 98 of the Evidence Law allows for the submission of physical evidence, such as objects, tools or other tangible items relevant to a case. Physical evidence may also include circumstantial or inferred evidence as per Article 76, which permits testimonial evidence for material facts.
• Electronic evidence: Electronic evidence includes:
• • digital documents;
  • emails; and
  • social media records.
• While Iraq lacks specific laws regulating cybercrime or electronic evidence, such evidence is handled under existing criminal laws, such as the Penal Code (111/1969) – particularly in cases of electronic blackmail or threats.
• Expert reports: As per Article 126 of the Evidence Law, expert opinions are permitted when technical or scientific knowledge is necessary to resolve a case. Courts may appoint experts to give opinions on specific matters.
• Circumstantial evidence: Circumstantial evidence relies on inferences drawn from surrounding circumstances, including parties' actions or situations that suggest a connection to the facts at hand.

6.2 What rules apply to expert evidence in your jurisdiction? What specific considerations should be borne in mind when preparing and presenting expert evidence?

In Iraq, expert evidence plays a crucial role in cases requiring specialised technical or scientific knowledge. The following rules and considerations apply to the preparation and presentation of expert evidence:

• Appointment of experts: According to Article 130 of the Evidence Law (107/1979), experts can be appointed by the court:
• • at the request of either party; or
  • at the discretion of the judge.
• The experts must be qualified professionals in their respective fields. Their appointment ensures that technical issues requiring specialised knowledge are addressed.
• Preparation of reports: Under Article 140, experts must prepare detailed and comprehensive reports based on the evidence and facts presented. The report must clearly explain the expert's findings and conclusions, supported by sound scientific or technical principles.
• Presentation of the report: As per Article 144, the expert's report is submitted to both the court and the involved parties. After submission, parties may request clarifications or ask the expert to elaborate on specific points in the report. This ensures transparency and thorough understanding of the technical evidence.
• Submission of evidence: Experts must also submit any physical or technical evidence used in compiling their report. This evidence is critical as it allows the court to independently assess the reliability of the expert's conclusions.
• Expert testimony: According to Article 133, the court can call on the expert to provide oral testimony in court, clarifying the report and answering questions from the parties or the judge. This process helps to ensure that all aspects of the technical evidence are fully understood.

6.3 What other factors should be borne in mind when preparing and presenting evidence in your jurisdiction?

When preparing and presenting evidence in Iraq, several key factors must be considered to ensure compliance with legal procedures and the admissibility of evidence:

• Relevance and admissibility: Evidence must be directly relevant to the case at hand. According to the Civil Procedure Law (83/1969), only evidence that has a direct impact on the dispute can be presented. Courts may exclude irrelevant or immaterial evidence.
• Neutrality and objectivity: Experts, in particular, are bound by neutrality and objectivity when preparing reports. As per Article 144 of the Evidence Law, experts must provide an impartial assessment based on recognised scientific or technical standards. Any sign of bias can undermine the credibility of the expert's report.
• Documentation and authenticity: Written evidence, such as contracts or official documents, must be authenticated and properly documented. Article 140 of the Evidence Law outlines the importance of providing comprehensive documentation. Courts require supporting documents to be presented alongside oral testimonies to corroborate claims.
• Timeliness: Evidence must be submitted within the deadlines set by the court. Articles 16-18 of the Civil Procedure Law provide clear timelines for filing documents and presenting evidence. Failure to adhere to these deadlines may result in evidence being disregarded.
• Confidentiality and sensitivity: Sensitive information, such as trade secrets or personal data, must be handled with care. Iraqi law includes provisions for protecting such information from disclosure unless the court deems it absolutely necessary.

In conclusion, when preparing and presenting evidence, parties must:

• adhere to strict legal procedures;
• ensure neutrality; and
• provide thorough documentation to establish the credibility and admissibility of their evidence.

Failure to do so can significantly impact the outcome of the litigation.

7 Court proceedings

7.1 What case management powers do the courts have in your jurisdiction?

In Iraq, courts have comprehensive case management powers designed to ensure the efficient handling of disputes. The Civil Procedure Law (83/1969) provides judges with various tools for overseeing and managing litigation. Key powers include the following:

• Dispute resolution authority: Courts are empowered to adjudicate on civil, criminal, commercial and administrative disputes. Judges are responsible for:
• • assessing evidence;
  • hearing witness testimonies; and
  • delivering rulings based on applicable laws.
• Law interpretation and application: Judges in the Iraqi courts are tasked with interpreting and applying laws to the facts presented in each case. They rely on statutory law, including the Civil Procedure Law and other relevant legislation, to issue judgments consistent with the legal framework.
• Interim orders: Courts can issue interim or provisional orders, such as protective orders or seizure orders, to safeguard the interests of the parties until a final judgment is rendered. These measures ensure that the rights of the parties are not jeopardised during the litigation.
• Enforcement of judgments: After delivering a judgment, courts have the authority to ensure its execution. They can issue enforcement orders against individuals or entities required to comply with the court's decision.
• Review of appeals: Higher courts in Iraq have the power to review decisions made by lower courts through the appeals process. This ensures that errors in law or fact can be corrected, allowing for fairer outcomes.

By blending procedural guidelines with judicial discretion, the courts:

• maintain control over case flow; and
• ensure timely resolution.

7.2 Are court proceedings in your jurisdiction public or private? If the former, are any options available to the parties to keep the proceedings or related information confidential?

In the Iraqi legal system, judicial procedures are typically public to ensure transparency. Court hearings are generally open, allowing the public to observe the administration of justice. This openness extends to the publication of certain rulings to promote legal awareness.

However, confidentiality may be applied in specific circumstances, such as cases involving:

• national security;
• minors; or
• the protection of private or sensitive information.

In such instances, parties may request that the court hold confidential proceedings or withhold sensitive information from public disclosure. The court will evaluate these requests based on the nature of the case and the need for privacy.

Judges can issue orders to restrict the dissemination of certain details or close courtrooms to the public if it is deemed necessary to protect the safety of individuals or maintain the confidentiality of sensitive data.

Special exceptions are made for cases involving minors, where hearings are often closed to protect their privacy and prevent any negative impact on their lives.

This balance between transparency and confidentiality ensures the integrity of legal proceedings in Iraq while protecting the privacy of individuals when needed.

7.3 How is the applicable law determined? What happens in the event of a conflict of laws?

In Iraq, the determination of applicable law in legal disputes is guided by the principles set forth in the Civil Code, particularly Articles 19-33. Generally, the law governing a legal relationship or issue is tied to the place where the legal event, such as a contract or transaction, took place. In the absence of a specific agreement between the parties, the law of the location where the contract was concluded or performed usually applies.

When dealing with personal matters such as inheritance, marriage or family-related issues, the individual's personal law (typically his or her national law) is applied. For foreign nationals, their home country's law may be invoked, but only to the extent that it does not conflict with Iraqi public order or sovereignty. This is to ensure that the application of foreign laws does not compromise Iraq's fundamental principles or violate its public policies.

In case of a conflict of laws – where different legal systems might apply – Iraqi law mandates that foreign law will be considered only if it does not contradict critical national legal norms. If a conflict arises and foreign law is deemed incompatible with Iraq's legal framework, Iraqi courts retain the authority to reject the application of foreign law and instead apply local Iraqi law. This safeguard ensures that national interests and public order are preserved when foreign legal principles are involved.

7.4 What rules apply to the joinder of third parties?

Under the Civil Procedure Law, the joinder of third parties is primarily regulated by Article 66, which outlines when and how third parties can be added to an ongoing lawsuit. Third-party joinder occurs when a party not initially involved in the case is brought in due to its legal interest in the matter at hand. This can be initiated by the court or requested by the original parties.

A third party can be added if its involvement is necessary for the just resolution of the case. This often happens where:

• the outcome of the lawsuit may directly affect the third party's rights or interests; or
• the third party's presence is necessary to resolve related disputes without the need for separate legal proceedings.

To join a third party, a formal application must be submitted to the court explaining the relevance and necessity of its involvement. Once approved, the third party assumes the same legal responsibilities as the original litigants, including presenting evidence and making arguments.

The rules are designed to ensure that all parties that may be impacted by the court's decision are given the opportunity to be heard, thus promoting fairness and preventing multiple lawsuits on similar issues.

7.5 How do the court proceedings unfold in your jurisdiction? What specific considerations should be borne in mind at each stage of the process, for both plaintiff and defendant?

Court proceedings in Iraq unfold in distinct phases, each with specific legal and procedural requirements for both the plaintiff and the defendant. According to the Civil Procedure Law, the process generally involves the following stages:

• Filing of the lawsuit:
• • Plaintiff: The case begins with the plaintiff submitting a formal complaint to the competent court. This complaint must include all relevant facts, claims, and supporting documents (Articles 46-47).
  • Defendant: The defendant is expected to respond within a set timeframe, failing which a default judgment may be rendered.
• Preliminary hearings:
• • Plaintiff: The plaintiff must be prepared with evidence and witnesses. The court may schedule a preparatory hearing to review the claims and ascertain the available evidence.
  • Defendant: The defendant can challenge the claims and provide counter-evidence, which includes presenting witnesses or contesting the admissibility of evidence submitted by the plaintiff.
• Main hearings and pleadings:
• • Both parties: This stage involves presenting evidence, cross-examining witnesses and making legal arguments. Both the plaintiff and defendant must be well prepared for legal questioning and objections during these hearings.
• Judgment:
• • Plaintiff: If the decision favours the plaintiff, it must be ready to enforce the judgment or appeal any unfavourable portions.
  • Defendant: If the decision is unfavourable, the defendant has the option to file an appeal within a specified timeframe (Articles 165-174).

Throughout these stages, both parties must adhere to procedural deadlines and ensure transparency in presenting evidence, while also considering possibilities of appeal or other legal remedies.

7.6 What is the typical timeframe for the court proceedings?

The typical timeframe for court proceedings in Iraq varies depending on:

• the complexity of the case;
• the availability of evidence; and
• procedural compliance by both parties.

Under the Civil Procedure Law (83/1969), several factors influence the duration of court cases:

• Initial filing and pre-trial phase: After the lawsuit is filed, there is usually a period for service of process and submission of the defendant's response. This phase may take a few weeks or even months, depending on whether the parties comply with deadlines for submitting pleadings, supporting documents and other initial requirements.
• Hearings and evidence submission: The court may schedule multiple hearings, during which both parties present evidence and witnesses. The frequency and number of these hearings depend on the complexity of the case and the availability of evidence. Typically, this phase could last several months if parties request extensions or if evidence must be obtained from external sources.
• Judgment and appeals: After the hearings, the court issues a judgment, which is often done within a few months of the final hearing. However, if either party appeals the decision, the timeframe is extended, potentially adding several additional months or more, depending on the level of the court.
• Enforcement of judgments: If no appeal is filed, the judgment becomes final and enforcement proceedings may begin. This enforcement phase can take additional time, depending on the assets involved and the cooperation of the losing party.

Overall, a straightforward civil case can take approximately six months to two years to conclude, while more complex cases involving appeals can take longer.

8 Judgment and remedies

8.1 What types of judgments, orders and other remedies are available in your jurisdiction?

In Iraq, the types of judgments, orders and remedies available in the legal system are regulated under various provisions of the Civil Procedure Law (83/1969) and other relevant laws. The primary forms of judgments and remedies include the following:

• Civil judgments:
• • Declaratory judgments: These judgments clarify the rights, duties and obligations of the parties involved in a dispute. The court may issue a declaratory judgment to resolve questions of law without necessarily awarding damages.
  • Financial judgments: In cases involving compensation for damages, the court may order monetary remedies based on the harm suffered by the plaintiff. These include:
  • • compensatory damages for property loss;
    • contractual disputes; and
    • personal injury claims.
• Criminal judgments: In criminal cases, the court issues either a conviction or acquittal, depending on the evidence presented. Penalties for a conviction can range from imprisonment to fines, depending on the severity of the crime under the Penal Code.
• Commercial judgments:
• • Enforcement orders: In commercial cases, courts may issue orders related to:
  • • contract enforcement;
    • debt recovery; or
    • business disputes.
  • These include judgments regarding:
  • • the execution of commercial agreements; and
    • the liquidation of assets in cases of insolvency.
  • Bankruptcy and insolvency orders: The court oversees procedures for insolvency and liquidation under the Commercial Law, which governs matters of corporate bankruptcy and dissolution.
• Provisional remedies:
• • Interim and precautionary measures: These include injunctions and precautionary attachment orders (Article 231 of the Civil Procedure Law), allowing the court to protect the claimant's rights while the litigation is ongoing. For example, assets may be frozen or seized to ensure the enforcement of a final judgment.
  • Temporary orders: In cases involving family law or urgent commercial matters, the court may issue temporary orders regarding custody, maintenance or management of disputed property.
• Enforcement and execution orders:
• • Orders of execution: Once a judgment is issued, an enforcement order may be issued, compelling a party to comply with the court's ruling. This can involve:
  • • property seizure;
    • garnishment of wages; or
    • other legal measures to ensure compliance.
  • Sequestration orders: In certain cases, the court may order the seizure of property to protect the plaintiff's claim, pending the outcome of litigation.
• Disclosure and inspection orders: Courts may issue discovery orders compelling parties to:
• • disclose evidence;
  • submit documents; or
  • provide information relevant to the case.
• Other remedies: Courts may also encourage or order alternative dispute resolution methods, such as mediation or arbitration, to resolve disputes outside of formal litigation (Article 251 of the Civil Procedure Law).

9 Appeals

9.1 On what grounds may a judgment be appealed in your jurisdiction?

Under the Civil Procedure Law, various provisions regulate the grounds and procedures for appealing judgments:

• Article 168 establishes the general methods for appealing judgments. A party can appeal decisions on substantive or procedural grounds by presenting the case to a higher court, with reasons such as misapplication of the law or incorrect evaluation of facts.
• Articles 185-188 provide that final judgments of first-instance courts may be appealed if there are legal or factual errors:
• • Article 185 permits appeals to be filed on the basis that the lower court made a material mistake in applying the law or overlooked key facts or evidence.
  • Article 186 emphasises that the appeal must be submitted within 30 days of the date of the judgment.
  • Article 187 allows for the suspension of execution of a judgment while the appeal is pending, provided that certain conditions are met.
  • Article 188 reiterates that failure to appeal within the specified timeframe may result in forfeiture of the right to appeal.
• Articles 203-205 outline the procedures for how the appellate courts review the case. They examine both the legal grounds and the factual record of the case to determine whether there is merit to the appeal. The appellate court may:
• • affirm, reverse or modify the lower court's decision; and
  • in some cases, remand the case for further proceedings.
• For more significant legal errors, Articles 219-221 discuss cassation – a higher form of appeal where the Court of Cassation reviews whether the law was applied correctly:
• • Article 220 allows cassation when there is a question of law.
  • Article 221 provides procedures for requesting such a review, which ensures a comprehensive re-evaluation of legal decisions by the highest court.

9.2 What is the appeals process? Is the judgment stayed while the appeal is pending?

In Iraq, the appeals process is governed by the Civil Procedure Law.

The appeals process begins when an appellant files an appeal against a lower court's judgment. This is typically submitted to a higher court, such as a court of appeal or the Court of Cassation, depending on the nature and level of the case. Article 168 of the Civil Procedure Law outlines the general framework for appeals. Appeals can be based on errors of fact, errors of law or both, depending on the grounds stated by the appellant.

Article 186 specifies that appeals must be lodged within 30 days of the date on which the judgment is issued. The appeal must clearly state the grounds for contesting the judgment, whether due to:

• factual discrepancies; or
• the improper application of legal principles.

Regarding whether the judgment is stayed while an appeal is pending, Article 187 allows for the suspension of the execution of a judgment if an appeal is properly filed. However, this suspension is not automatic. The appellant must submit a request to the court, which will decide whether to stay the execution based on factors such as:

• the likelihood of the appeal's success; and
• whether immediate enforcement of the judgment would cause irreparable harm.

Articles 203-205 further outline the appellate court's role in reviewing the case. The appellate court examines both the facts and the application of the law. Depending on its findings, the court may affirm, modify or overturn the original decision. The appellate court also has the power to remand the case to the lower court for further proceedings.

In cases of cassation, Articles 219-221 describe the process for higher-level appeals to the Court of Cassation, where the focus is on the correct interpretation and application of the law.

9.3 What specific considerations should be borne in mind during the appeals process, for both plaintiff and defendant?

In Iraq, specific considerations must be taken into account during the appeals process for both the plaintiff and defendant, as outlined in the Civil Procedure Law. Key aspects include the following:

• Time limits: Both parties must adhere to strict timelines for filing an appeal. Failure to do so may result in dismissal of the appeal.
• New evidence: The appellate court typically does not allow new evidence unless exceptional circumstances exist.
• Grounds of appeal: The appellant must clearly outline the legal errors made by the lower court, such as:
• • misinterpretation of law; or
  • incorrect application of legal principles.
• Stay of execution: While filing an appeal, a stay of execution must be specifically requested; otherwise, the original judgment can be enforced pending the appeal.
• Legal representation: Both parties should ensure they have competent legal representation to address the complexities of appellate proceedings, including addressing procedural deficiencies raised by the other party.
• Costs: The appealing party may be liable for the costs of both parties if the appeal is unsuccessful.

These considerations ensure that the appeals process is conducted efficiently and fairly, while also upholding the principles of justice within the framework of Iraqi law.

10 Enforcement

10.1 How are domestic judgments enforced in your jurisdiction?

In Iraq, the enforcement of domestic judgments is primarily governed by the Execution Law (45/1980). Once a judgment is final and no longer subject to appeal, the creditor can file an execution request at the Execution Court, which oversees the enforcement. Article 9 of the law stipulates that all judgments rendered by Iraqi courts are enforceable.

Key steps include the following:

• Voluntary compliance: The debtor is given a period – typically seven days after being notified – to voluntarily comply with the judgment under Article 18.
• Coercive enforcement: If the debtor does not comply, Article 22 allows the court to enforce the judgment through various measures, including:
• • seizing assets or income;
  • garnishing wages; or
  • selling property.
• Article 54 governs the seizure of sufficient assets to cover the debt and associated costs.
• Judicial oversight: The court ensures proper conduct and balance between the debtor's and creditor's rights, as outlined in Articles 30 and 31, which allow it to take measures such as:
• • freezing assets; or
  • issuing travel bans if necessary.
• Penalties for non-compliance: If the debtor resists enforcement, Article 40 provides for potential imprisonment or additional fines until compliance is achieved.

In summary, the Execution Law provides a structured framework to ensure that final judgments are efficiently enforced, protecting both:

• the creditor's right to recovery; and
• the debtor's rights throughout the process.

10.2 How are foreign judgments enforced in your jurisdiction?

In Iraq, the enforcement of foreign judgments is regulated by the Civil Procedure Law and Law 30/1928. Article 3 of the 1928 law requires the party seeking enforcement to file a case with the court of first instance. The judgment must satisfy conditions under Article 6, including:

• proper notification to the defendant;
• legitimacy of the foreign court; and
• consistency with Iraqi public order.

The court may refuse enforcement if the foreign judgment:

• was obtained by fraud; or
• violates local principles of justice.

Iraq's adherence to international treaties, such as the Riyadh Arab Agreement for Judicial Cooperation and the New York Convention, also influences the enforcement of foreign arbitral awards.

To enforce a foreign judgment, the following steps are required:

• Filing a request: The plaintiff must file a request for enforcement with the court of first instance in Iraq.
• Court decision: The court examines the judgment to ensure that it meets specific conditions, including:
• • reciprocity;
  • due notice to the defendant;
  • jurisdiction of the foreign court; and
  • compatibility with Iraqi public order and laws.
• Issuance of decision: The court may then issue a decision to recognise and enforce the judgment if these conditions are met.

10.3 What specific considerations should be borne in mind during the enforcement process, for both plaintiff and defendant?

In respect of the plaintiff, the foreign judgment must comply with the criteria set forth in Article 6 of Law 30/1928, including:

• jurisdiction of the foreign court;
• proper service of notice; and
• adherence to public order.

Plaintiffs should ensure that the foreign judgment is final and enforceable in the foreign jurisdiction.

Defendants can challenge the enforcement if they can prove that:

• the judgment violates public order;
• the judgment was obtained fraudulently; or
• they were not properly served or allowed to defend themselves during the foreign court proceedings.

11 Costs, fees and funding

11.1 What costs and fees are incurred when litigating in your jurisdiction?

In Iraq, litigating a case involves several costs, which can vary based on the type and complexity of the legal proceedings. Here is an overview of the typical expenses:

• Court filing fees: To initiate a legal action, parties must pay a fee that differs depending on:
• • the nature of the case – whether civil, criminal or commercial; and
  • the amount being disputed.
• The fees are regulated by Iraqi law.
• Lawyers' fees: The fees charged by attorneys depend on:
• • the complexity of the case;
  • the lawyers' experience; and
  • the agreed payment structure.
• These could be fixed fees, hourly rates or a percentage of the amount in dispute.
• Expert fees: When a case requires expert testimony, such as financial audits or technical evaluations, the parties will need to cover the expert's fees. These costs vary according to the difficulty and scope of the evaluation.
• Witness costs: In some cases, witnesses may be compensated for their time and expenses, especially if they play a crucial role in the trial.
• Enforcement costs: After a court judgment, additional costs arise when enforcing the ruling. These can include fees for actions such as property seizures or other enforcement mechanisms as specified by Iraqi law.
• Appeal fees: If a party wishes to appeal a court's decision, further fees will apply to initiate the appellate process.
• Administrative expenses: These include:
• • the costs of document preparation and translation (since legal proceedings require documents to be in Arabic); and
  • other procedural expenses throughout the litigation process.

Understanding and preparing for these costs is essential for individuals and businesses involved in legal disputes in Iraq, as the total expenses can accumulate based on the case's duration and complexity.

11.2 Are contingency fees and similar arrangements permitted in your jurisdiction?

While contingency fee arrangements – where a lawyer's compensation depends on winning the case – are not explicitly addressed by Iraqi law, legal fee structures are flexible. Clients and attorneys have the freedom to negotiate different payment methods. Although fixed and hourly rates are the most traditional, it is possible to agree on success-based fees, such as a percentage of the settlement – especially in civil or commercial matters.

To ensure fairness and transparency, these agreements should be clearly defined in a contract to avoid misunderstandings or disputes. It is also crucial that such arrangements align with the general principles of contract law in Iraq.

11.3 Is third-party funding permitted in your jurisdiction?

Third-party funding – where an external party finances the legal costs of a lawsuit in exchange for a share of the proceeds if the case is successful – is not explicitly regulated by Iraqi law. However, such arrangements are generally viewed cautiously within the legal framework. Iraqi legal principles emphasise the direct relationship between clients and their attorneys and there is little precedent for the involvement of third parties in financing litigation.

While the law does not prohibit third-party funding outright, any agreement involving an external financer must comply with Iraq's contract and ethical standards. These arrangements should be carefully structured to avoid any conflicts of interest or challenges regarding the fairness and independence of the judicial process.

11.4 What other strategies should parties consider to mitigate the costs of litigation?

To reduce litigation costs in Iraq, parties can employ several effective strategies aimed at minimising legal expenses and enhancing procedural efficiency. These include the following:

• Direct negotiation: Engaging in direct settlement discussions with the opposing party can be significantly less expensive than pursuing full litigation. This can involve:
• • negotiating favourable terms; or
  • agreeing on a mutual settlement to resolve the dispute without court intervention.
• Mediation: Utilising a mediator to facilitate dispute resolution outside the courtroom is another cost-effective approach. Mediation is an informal process and often results in faster, less expensive outcomes compared to traditional court procedures.
• Arbitration: Arbitration can serve as a practical alternative to litigation. In arbitration, disputes are resolved by arbitrators rather than judges and the process is generally faster and less costly than litigation, with flexible procedural rules.
• Early legal consultation: Seeking early legal advice from an attorney can help to prevent costly mistakes and provide effective strategies for navigating legal disputes. Early consultation allows for a thorough assessment of legal options before proceeding with costly litigation.
• Clear fee agreements: Negotiating and clarifying attorney fees and other costs at the outset can help to manage expenses and avoid unexpected financial surprises. Ensuring that the fee structure is transparent and agreed upon can assist in maintaining control over litigation costs.
• Organising documents: Efficient management and organisation of legal documents can save time and reduce costs. Keeping clear and orderly records minimises the time that lawyers spend gathering and analysing information, thus lowering legal fees.
• Case assessment: Conducting a detailed evaluation of the case's merits and the likelihood of success can guide informed decisions about whether to proceed with litigation. This may involve a cost-benefit analysis to determine whether pursuing the case is worthwhile financially.
• Identifying strengths and weaknesses: Focusing on the strengths and weaknesses of the case can help to build a more effective legal strategy and avoid costly legal tactics. By targeting key aspects of the dispute, parties can reduce unnecessary legal expenditures.
• Thorough analysis: Conducting a thorough analysis of legal data can help to identify trends and opportunities for cost reduction, streamlining the litigation process and ensuring more cost-effective outcomes.
• Seeking third-party funding: In some cases, third-party funding may be an option to alleviate the financial burden of litigation. This involves securing external financing to cover legal expenses in exchange for a share of any potential recovery.

12 Trends and predictions

12.1 How would you describe the current litigation landscape and prevailing trends in your jurisdiction? Are any new developments anticipated in the next 12 months, including any proposed legislative reforms?

The Iraqi judiciary has made notable progress, especially with the first reading of the new Arbitration Law in Parliament. This law is designed to align Iraq's arbitration procedures with international standards, particularly in light of the country's accession to the New York Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards. The Arbitration Law will provide a more transparent and efficient mechanism for resolving commercial disputes, which is crucial for attracting foreign investors.

This law will undergo a second reading soon in Parliament – a critical step towards its final ratification. Once passed, the law is expected to create a robust legal framework that fosters confidence in the arbitration process, reducing reliance on lengthy court proceedings. Additionally, the Iraqi judiciary has been working to enhance the overall efficiency of court procedures through the use of modern technology and improving access to justice, reflecting Iraq's commitment to legal modernisation.

By adopting these legislative reforms and continuing its judicial improvements, Iraq is setting the stage for a more stable legal environment, conducive to both domestic development and foreign investment.

13 Tips and traps

13.1 What would be your recommendations to parties facing litigation in your jurisdiction and what potential pitfalls would you highlight?

International companies operating in Iraq should always ensure that their contracts include a well-drafted arbitration clause. This can serve as a critical mechanism for resolving disputes outside of the Iraqi court system, providing a more efficient and neutral forum. Arbitration offers a faster, cost-effective and enforceable means of dispute resolution – particularly in a country such as Iraq, where litigation can face bureaucratic delays. Opting for arbitration can also avoid some of the complexities associated with Iraq's court system, including:

• language barriers; and
• the need for document translations into Arabic.

Recommendations for plaintiffs:

• Legal counsel: It is essential to retain an experienced lawyer who is familiar with the intricacies of Iraqi law. This includes knowledge of both local legal procedures and applicable international laws or treaties – such as the Riyadh Arab Agreement for Judicial Cooperation and the New York Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Arbitral Awards – to ensure the successful enforcement of any arbitral decision.
• Documentation: Plaintiffs should ensure that all legal documents are translated and authenticated according to Iraqi legal standards. Courts in Iraq only accept Arabic documents, so failure to have them translated can cause significant delays.
• Strong evidence: Gathering comprehensive and clear documentary evidence is crucial, as Iraqi courts rely heavily on written documentation rather than witness testimony.
• Alternative dispute resolution: Exploring settlement options, mediation or arbitration is often a more efficient alternative to litigation. In Iraq, litigation can be time-consuming due to the court's procedural backlogs.

Recommendations for defendants:

• Prompt response: Defendants must respond to claims within a legally prescribed timeframe or they risk a default judgment. Engage legal counsel early to handle all necessary documentation and filings.
• Jurisdiction challenges: Defendants should assess whether they can challenge the jurisdiction of the Iraqi court or the venue, especially if the agreement between the parties includes an international element or a valid arbitration clause.
• Counterclaims: Defendants can explore filing counterclaims to strengthen their negotiating position and potentially mitigate their liability.

Potential pitfalls:

• Delays in court: The Iraqi courts are often subject to delays and inefficiencies due to bureaucratic obstacles. It is critical to be prepared for longer-than-expected litigation timelines.
• Costs: Litigation costs – including attorney fees, court fees and other administrative expenses – can accumulate quickly. It is essential to discuss fee structures with your attorney and consider potential cost recovery mechanisms.
• Public order and morality: Iraqi law is heavily influenced by Islamic principles. Any legal claim or defence that contradicts public order or morality as defined by Islamic law may face rejection. International companies need to ensure that their claims do not conflict with these local norms.

By taking these factors into account and relying on a comprehensive arbitration clause, international companies operating in Iraq can:

• mitigate the challenges of the legal system; and
• ensure a more secure business environment.

The content of this article is intended to provide a general guide to the subject matter. Specialist advice should be sought about your specific circumstances.